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D.Litt. et Phil., Approaches to folklore/oral forms have evolved from an interest in things (texts are included here) to an interest in process, of which performance studies is a prime example. A performance orientation seeks to restore an activity (or a text as part of an activity) to its proper place - not as an extracted, reified entity, but as discourse created by performers in particular circumstances. These circumstances, or context, are detail-rich and have influences on a text, and, in turn, a text is a detail that influences other aspects of the total performance. These theoretical issues are dealt with in chapter I. Ndebele praise poetry manifests itself in many situations as it forms part of a larger oral culture, as can be seen in many regular and ad hoc Ndebele ceremonies. The extent of the oral culture is illustrated in chapter 2. Gunner and Gwala (1991: 7) have remarked that praise poetry 'has been and still is extremely open to appropriation by those who had or wished to have access to political power and influence'. This was particularly evident in the way praise poetry was performed during 1988 at political campaigns. This year was part of the period of political unrest in Ndebele history which started in 1985 when central government announced that Moutse would be incorporated into the former Kw'aNdebele and that KwaNdebele would become independent on 11 December 1986. At the 6 political meetings, during which the anti-independent royalists campaigned against independence, praise poetry was utilised extensively. This background is dealt with in chapter 3. At these meetings praise poetry functioned not only to amuse the crowd, but to introduce speakers, underscore their legitimacy and to lend authority to what speakers were saying. Needless to say, while some iimbongo were 'context ready', others were recontextualised to have something to say about the issues prevailing at the time. The praises that grew from contemporary circumstances were those of the `ama-radicals', as they were called, namely, the princes, sons of Mabhoko, the Ndzundza-Ndebele chief (Ingwenyama) at that time. The praises of Mabhoko himself were largely those of Mabhoko I, who lived between 1800 and 1865. But although these iimbongo originated at that time, they were highly relevant to the circumstances prevailing at the time so that the process of recontextualisation was quite natural. Contextual issues such as these are described in chapter 4. The value of the performance approach is that, while a text is seen as part of a process, it is also recognised as language on display, language presented for enjoyment and as a display of communicative competence. Bauman and Briggs (1990) refer to this process as entextualisation. Language as display, or artistic language use, is characterised by numerous devices. In the Ndebele praise poems the metaphor can be seen to be the privileged trope, occurring more frequently than any other device. Contemporary Ndebele praise poets operate at a time when orality is being replaced by literacy. Very often praise poets document their own poetry, thus allowing for others to learn these praises through the medium of the written word. How does this affect creativity? These issues are addressed in chapter 5. Jimbongo as instances of 'master creative discourse' are meant to influence listeners and achieve practical ends in a time when there are so many other contending types of discourse and means of communication. The study concludes by briefly considering the role of this oral art form in contemporary Ndebele society.

Table of Contents Acknowledgements Summary iv Opsomming ...vi
Chapter 1: Approaches to Folklore ...1
1.1 Folklore as discipline ...3
1.2 Terminology ...3
1.3 Definitions, scope, and suppositions ...4
1.3.1 Alan Dundes ...4
1.3.2 Dan Ben-Amos ...5
1.3.3 Roger Abrahams ...9
1.3.4 Richard Bauman ...10
1.3.5 Recent studies ...11
1.4 Conclusion ...11
1.5 A Brief History of Folklore Studies ...12
1.5.1 The pre-modern era: early folkloristic activity ...12
1.5.1.1 Popular antiquities ...12
1.5.1.2 Literary folkloristics ...13
1.5.1.3 The Aryan thesis ...14
1.5.1.4 Comparative mythology ...14
1.5.1.5 The anthropological approach ...15
African material and survivalism ...16
1.5.1.6 Symbolism ...17
1.5.2 Conclusion ...18
1.5.3 The modern era: folklore as scientific enterprise ...18
1.5.3.1 Psychological approaches ...18
1.5.3.2 Diffusionism ...20
1.5.3.3 Functionalism ...20
1.5.3.4 Formalism/Structuralism ...21
1.5.3.5 Marxism 24 1.5.3.6 The Oral Theory ...25
1.5.4 Conclusion ...26
1.5.5 The postmodern era: the era of textuality ...28
1.5.5.1 Feminism ...28
1.5.5.2 Deconstruction 2...8
1.5.5.3 Popular arts ...29
1.5.5.4 Praxis ...30
1.5.6 Conclusion ...31
1.5.7 Performance theory ...32
1.5.7.1 Orientation ...32
1.5.7.2 The emergence of a performance approach ...32
1.5.7.3 Concepts in performance theory ...35
1.5.8 Evaluation of performance theory ...43
1.5.8.1 Performance theory and culture ...44
1.5.8.2 Performance theory and scientific practice ...45
1.5.8.3 Performance theory and the nature of oral texts ...46
1.5.8.4 Performance theory and the function of oral texts ...46
1.5.8.5 . Conclusion ...48
1.6 General conclusion ...48
Chapter 2: The Oral Context ...50
2.1 Context: the literary environment ...50
2.1.1 Studies on and collections of Ndebele verbal art ...51
2.1.2 Performed verbal art ...53
2.1.2.1 Regular ceremonies ...53
Ichude/iqhude - girls' initiation ...53
Izangoma performances ...65
Umtjhado wekosi, kwaMabhena - marriage of Mabhena, KwaMabhena ...76
Ingoma - boys initiation ...80
Umnyanya wesitjhaba - national ceremony ...104
2.1.2.2 Ad hoc ceremonies ...105
Ukumatjha - political gathering ...105
Ukunika iporiyana - giving of the poriyana ...106
Umnyanya wokubonga ukuthula, eKosini - ceremony to thank for the peace, eKosini ...107
Other performances ...108
2.2 Conclusion ...108
Chapter 3: The Political Context ...109
3.1 The Ndebele context ...112
3.1.1 The period of unrest ...116
3.2 Nature of the performances ...119
3.2.1 Performers ...119
3.2.2 Audience ...121
3.2.3 Performances ...123
3.2.4 Political rhetoric and its discoursees ...124
3.2.4.1 Chieftaincy ...125
3.2.4.2 Polarity ...127
3.2.4.3 The elections and other topics ...128
3.2.4.4 History and culture ...128
3.2.4.5 Moral issues ...129
3.2.5 Religious rhetoric ...129
3.2.6 Artistic rhetoric ...129
3.2.6.1 • Ukuthamba ...130
3.2.6.2 Amahubo ...131
3.2.6.3 Songs ...132
3.2.6.4 Praise poetry ...140
3.2.7 A typical performance ...141
3.3 Conclusion ...142
Chapter 4: Contextualisation and Recontextualisation ...144
4.1 Functions of oral art and of iimbongo in particular ...144
4.2 Contextualisation ...149
4.2.1 Solly Mahlangu ...149
4.2.2 Prince Cornelius ...153
4.2.3 Prince James ...155
4.2.4 Mabhoko ...159
4.2.5 Nyabela ...167
4.3 Recontextualisation ...172
4.3.1 Mabhoko ...172
4.3.2 Nyabela ...175
4.4 Conclusion ...176
Chapter 5: Entextualisation ...178
5.1 Approaches to poetic language ...178
5.1.1 Literary/aesthetic views ...179
5.1.2 Linguistic views ...181
5.1.3 Orality ...183
5.1.4 Anthropological views ...184
5.1.5 Evaluation and synthesis ...186
5.2 Analysis ...188
5.2.1 Repetition ...188
5.2.2 Repetition of the `gijimani' motif ...193
5.2.3 Word order ...195
5.2.4 Imagery ...195
5.2.4.1 Composition ...196
5.2.4.2 Register ...198
5.2.4.3 Opening metaphors ...200
5.2.4.4 Other images, satire, bawdy language ...202
5.2.5 Peculiar grammar 205 5.2.5.1 Elision of initial vowels of nouns ...206
5.2.5.2 Elision of class prefixes of nouns ...207
5.2.5.3 Elision of associative particle, identifying particle ...208
5.2.5.4 Elision of agreement markers, part of the negative marker v209
5.2.5.5 Use of nominal structures ko-, no-, etc. ...210
5.2.5.6 Phrase/sentence-like nominal structures ...211
5.2.5.7 Agreement discrepancies ...213
5.2.5.8 Noun plus imperative ...213
5.2.5.9 The short form of the past tense ...213
5.3 Creativity ...214
5.4 Conclusion ...225
Chapter 6: Conclusion ...229
References ...233
Addendum 1: Maps of research area ...243
Addendum 2: Genealogy Ndzundza amakhosi and regents ...245
Addendum 3: Photos ...246